The  General  Assembly  of  the  Scientific  Committee  on Problems  of the Environment (SCOPE) in 1982 rang a wake up call on the global significance of the biological invasions. Almost two centuries before this event, the alien invasive problem was recognized in India due to the difficulties caused by the introduction of a cactus, Opuntia  vulgaris Miller (Cactaceae). It was controlled by introducing the cochineal insect, Dactylopius ceylonicus (Green) (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae) (Tryon 1910). This was the first record of the biological control of a weed.

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Funding programs should support comprehensive, competitive, regional projects  in  the  Pacific  Basin  targeted  at building  the  capacity  (i.e.  Personnel, Internet enhancement, and training needs) necessary to identify and stop the spread of invasive species within the country and beyond.

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The threat of exotic pest organisms to horticultural industries and to imports and exports of agricultural products in the Caribbean Basin and Florida is extremely serious. The rate of establishment of exotic pests in Florida exceeds that in California and rivals that in Hawai‘i. During the past 2 decades, Asia has become almost as important as the neotropics as a main source of invaders, and there has been an increase in establishment rates for species belonging to the Acari, Homoptera and Thysanoptera. Efforts to contain and eradicate newly established immigrant pest populations have been limited to only a few major pests. We determined that roughly 130 significant exotic arthropod pests are present in the Caribbean, sensu lato, but not yet in Florida, as well as substantial numbers external to the Caribbean Basin.
The United States has relied on inspection of arriving cargo and passengers at the port of entry as one of the main approaches to exclusion of exotic pests. Since volumes of arriving cargo are doubling every six years , this approach is no longer adequate. Thus the National Plant Board asserted that the U.S. safeguarding system should shift primary reliance from port-of-entry inspection to off-shore actions, including risk mitigation in production areas, certification of pest-free status at point of origin and pre-clearance at the port of export. Off-shore risk can be mitigated by area-wide biologically-based suppression, creation of pest-free production areas and inspection, treatment (if necessary) and certification at the port of export. Most compelling for Florida would be the regionalization of pest exclusion programs throughout the Caribbean Basin, because a dangerous organism that establishes in one of the countries quickly endangers the entire Basin.

Exotic agricultural pests are constantly finding their way into new geographic locations. In the Pacific region, island nations have enjoyed the benefit of being isolated until the last couple of centuries. The advent of air travel has really accelerated the rate of spread of exotic pests, and this is causing new pest outbreaks in the region even today. One part of this paper is dedicated to considering how existing pest information could be used to reduce this spread of exotic pests into the Pacific region, and more specifically, into the island of Guam. The second part looks at Tinangaja, a unique coconut disease occurring only on Guam, and how it could be prevented from spreading elsewhere.

The Asian black twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus Eichhoff 1875) became naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands in the 1960s. It attacks economically important plants (e.g. coffee) as well as endangered endemic trees. This study examined the impact of the black twig borer on koa (Acacia koa), an economically important native tree that is harvested for its fine wood. The black twig borer tunnels into healthy branches, inoculating the wood with a fungus, Fusarium solani. We tested whether F. solani is pathogenic to koa by inoculating seedlings and saplings with the fungus. We found that F. solani was not pathogenic to koa. Nevertheless, in both natural and plantation settings the beetle caused significant mortality in koa seedlings and small saplings. Mortality was associated with boring into the stem, which often caused the main stem to break. The beetles also attacked live twigs on larger saplings and trees, causing flagging, but this damage was not correlated with tree mortality and did not appear to affect koa growth rates. The main source of mortality among older saplings was infection by the vascular wilt fungus, F. oxysporum. This fungus did not appear to be spread by the black twig borer. The main economic and ecological impact of the black twig borer on koa is in the seedling and small sapling stages. In a plantation setting, these impacts could be reduced by outplanting larger saplings and/or genetic selection for resistance. We found significant genetic variation among koa maternal families in rates of black twig borer attack.

The invasion of ecosystems by exotic plants and animals is a major environmental threat. Examples of exotic plant species threatening various ecosystems are described within these proceedings. The focus on invasion at the whole plant and population levels often overlooks a more insidious invasion, that of non-native genes into resident populations of native plants. Native plant species have been and will continue to be used in the urban landscape and ecological restoration. Failure to consider the genetics of native planting stock may lead to failed plantings or to introduction of foreign genes into native plants surrounding a restoration site. Eradication of invasive exotic plants in restoration efforts is costly but achievable. The eradication of escaped genes that have invaded native resident populations, however, may not be achievable. Characteristics of the degraded site, abiotic environment of the disturbance, and genetic structure of the native plant species being considered for re-vegetation are some of the critical concepts to consider in ecological genetics. 

An updated account of alien angiosperm species in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), based on a recent survey of flora in Kosrae is presented. A few highly potent invasive species in Kosrae are Merremia peltata (L.) Merr., Vigna marina (Burm f.) Merr., Panicum maximum Jacq., Pennisetum polystachyon Schult., Saccharum spontaneum L., Commelina diffusa Burn., Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson, Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn., Wedelia trilobata (L.) Hitche and the parasitic weed Cuscuta filiformis L. 

In the past ten years at least six species of insect and mite pests have invaded India affecting agricultural production. Some of the recent invasive pests in India are psyllid, Heteropsylla cubana Crawford on Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) De Witt; American serpentine leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) on a number of vegetables and ornamental plants; coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) on coffee; spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus Russell on a number of agricultural, horticultural crops and forest trees; Silver leaf whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring on tomato; and coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer on coconut. Outbreaks of coconut mite and silver leaf whitefly had devastating effects on the economy of the farming communities in south India. Some of the alien weeds that have invaded India are Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson; Ageratina adenophora (Sprengel); Parthenium hysterophorus Linnaeus; lantana, Lantana camera Linnaeus; mile-a-minute weed, Mikania micrantha Kunth; giant sensitive plant, Mimosa invisa Martius ex Colla; sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica Linnaeus; water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Martius); and salvinia, Salvinia molesta Mitchell. Classical biological control appears to be an important approach in the management of these invasive organisms in their new habitats. International cooperation for their effective management is of paramount importance as exchange of information on biology of invasive pests that are spreading their range and exchange of natural enemies, etc. can be effectively achieved by such cooperation.

Several plants introduced accidentally or for ornamental purposes have established in Micronesia and are considered invasive species. These include: Antigonon leptopus Hooker & Arnott, Bidens pilosa L., Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson, Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don, Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt, Cuscuta sp., Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach, Imperata conferta (Presl) Ohwi, Ipomea spp., Lantana camara L., Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) deWit, Mikania scandens (L.) Willd., Mimosa (invisa) diplotricha C. Wright ex Suavalle, Miscanthus floridulus (Labill.) Warburg ex Schum. & Lauterb., Momordica charantia L., Panicum maximum Jacquin, Passiflora foetida L., Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) Schultes, Piper auritum Kunth, Pistia stratiotes L., Raphidophora aurea (Linden ex Andre), Spathodea campanulata P. de Beauvois, and Wedelia trilobata (L.) Hitche. The natural enemies introduced to suppress some of these species will be discussed.

About 15-20 new insects become established in Hawai‘i each year, of which one or two become serious pests. The Hawai‘i Department of Agriculture uses four primary strategies based on three methods to control alien plant pests (i.e., pathogens, weeds, mollusks, insects, and other invertebrates). Chemical and mechanical control methods have been used in eradication strategies against incipient pests with limited success. Both methods have also been used with some degree of success in containment strategies against localized pests to slow down their spread or to gain time for development of other solutions. Biological control has been the most successful method applied in Hawai‘i to control pests throughout the State. Integrated control strategies, utilizing all three methods, have also been successful in protecting specific crops while promoting the biological control method. Examples of each strategy are provided.

Common pests of coconut in Micronesia include coconut hispid, Brontispa spp.; red coconut scale, Furcaspis oceanica Lindinger; coconut scale, Aspidiotus destructor Signoret; rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros L.; and New Guinea sugarcane weevil, Rhabdoscelus obscurus (Boisduval). A number of other minor pests also occur in this region. Their distribution, and the history of introduction and establishment of their natural enemies in Micronesia are described. Possible accidental introduction of a destructive pest, Aceria guerreronis Keifer is cautioned.

Globalization of growing and marketing agricultural crops has increased the invasion of alien species in many parts of the world. A prime example is the spread of the agromyzid leafminer Liriomyza trifolii, originally a major pest of chrysanthemums in Florida. Furthermore, the leafminer was difficult to control because the original population in Florida had already developed resistance to many insecticides. To prevent the spread of alien species, governments must have strict quarantine regulations and consistently reject incoming shipments that are contaminated. Pre-shipment disinfestation treatments are a critical component in the battle to prevent the spread of alien pest species, especially to uninfested areas, throughout global agricultural markets. Promising alternatives to methyl bromide fumigation, such as controlled atmosphere, heat treatment, irradiation, and combinations of treatments, can effectively disinfest perishable commodities, especially tropical cut flowers and foliage and potted plants. Collaboration between academic, government and industry efforts will provide the most effective means of pest detection and exclusion.

National Quarantine Services have legal control of the introduction of animals, plants, pests and diseases in the Pacific. The Secretariat of the Pacific Community’s Plant Protection and Animal Health Services coordinate governments in the implementation of global obligations of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and the Organisation International Epizooties (OIE), principally to protect subsistence agricultural production. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has resulted in the establishment of government agencies for the monitoring and surveillance of the environment, as distinct from agriculture. There is potential for conflicts and duplication when agencies operate under linked but different Conventions. Many Pacific Island countries (PICs) can ill afford duplication of services to regulate transborder movements that pose a risk to agriculture, environment and human health. Environment agencies have primary interest in the local environment and compliance monitoring, whereas quarantine authorities interests are in international trade, cooperation and emergency response. Rationalization of common and duplicated provisions under IPPC and CBD is a subject of current discussions between the Convention secretariats.

A major role of the Animal Biosecurity Group within New Zealand’s Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Biosecurity Authority (MAF Biosecurity) is to detect and respond to ‘post-border’ incursions of exotic animals. This includes exotic animals that are detected after goods are cleared at New Zealand’s borders, and where the path of entry into New Zealand is not known. The Group develops standards which describe surveillance and response mechanisms, co-ordinates the government response when more than one government agency is involved, and may provide input into the development of pest control programs where exotic animal species have started to establish within New Zealand. Since the creation of MAF Biosecurity in 1999, the Group has initiated responses to exotic snakes, frogs, freshwater fish and numerous invertebrates including scorpions, spiders, wasps and ants. Many of these have come from the tropics. Without careful planning and management there is high potential for some of these species to establish within New Zealand. This paper discusses MAF Biosecurity’s exotic animal response and management systems. The recent incursion of the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) to New Zealand is used as a case study to demonstrate how these standards and procedures work in practice.